It is one thing surviving massive crises, another to clean up afterwards.

Even big intense crises are relatively short term affairs. It is the fallout and cleanup afterwards that seem to stretch into the distance forever before one can claim being back to pre-crisis ‘normality’ again.

The world is no longer caught in vicious downdrafts as encountered in the midst of crisis. Those searing hot panic moments were limited to September/October 2008 and (less intense and more narrowly in scope) April/May 2010.

American banks and European debt has since stabilized, with currency movements remaining ‘orderly’ (if oceanic). Contagion panic in the real economy took a little longer to end in 4Q2008 while it failed to ignite in 2Q2010.

So congratulations are in order. At least the world survived these two massive encounters with financial bankruptcy and lived to tell the tale.

But when we inspect the detritus left by both crises, it is another story altogether. Here we encounter a changed landscape, like an Atlantic beach the morning after a hurricane has passed through and the ocean has thoroughly reconfigured the beach, in places beyond recognition.

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In the case of the Anglo-Saxon banking shock, the aftermath includes a real estate overhang (residential and commercial), changed credit standards AND appetites.

Households prefer to save more and pay off debt faster, reducing their debt burden relative to income as they deleverage, having less appetite to consume.

Businesses remain strongly profit focused, are less willing to incur debt, and are less inclined to believe high growth forecasts and more willing to constrain their cost bases.

This yields big productivity gains as existing labour forces are more effectively deployed, but it also limits the fuller re-absorption of unemployed and underemployed labour.

Anglo-Saxon governments, especially the US and UK, willingly supported their financial systems and economies by accepting wartime ‘emergency’ budget deficits. These efforts take time unwinding, while throughout pushing national debt levels towards 100% of GDP and even beyond.

Central banks, especially the Fed and BoE, lowered interest rates to near zero and hugely increased their balance sheets, buying illiquid instruments, restoring market functionality while boosting liquidity, but storing up a huge asset overhang that will need to be unwound sometime, presumably once things are back to being more normal.

The drastic crisis actions of governments means years of higher tax burdens for some countries, whether VAT (as in the UK) or income tax (as for higher US incomes after 2010). It also means constrained means to fund social delivery which becomes slimmed down compared to pre-crisis days, most drastically so far in the UK.

There is temporary loss of growth potential, as certain types of capital stock are no longer efficient or wanted, and this also being true of certain types of labour skill and experience, while the rate of capital formation (fixed investment) is for a while subdued.

The great background tragedy is of lives devastated, in millions of houses foreclosed, jobs and even pensions lost, financial nest eggs gone and people so affected having to rebuild their careers and lives with reduced means. Like after a real war (this one being more of the neutron variety in which physical damage remains limited but radiation does the real damage).

It makes for despair, uncertainty, caution, suspicion, fear. Especially as one can’t be sure yet whether there are any more crises lurking out there, with many commentators to the point of paranoia beating the drums.

Not everyone is of course equally affected. Indeed, a case can be made that each one of us comes uniquely to a crisis, is uniquely affected and respond uniquely.

And so in the midst of much lingering despair the first green shoots of recovery are encountered (remember that dialogue of the deaf a year ago?), and these eventually spread and gain in intensity, as the circle of life resumes its journey, not having been fatally broken.

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In the case of Europe it may generally be more correct to speak of a near crisis than a fully fledged one.

Greeks, Portuguese, Spaniards and Irish may not quite agree, as they encountered the real McCoy of (near) bankruptcy and its fallout.

But Continental Europe in 2010 did not quite go through an Anglo-Saxon experience.

Certainly there was also recession in Europe in the aftermath of the Anglo-Saxon crisis, but the housing and financial devastation wasn’t on a par. And when the Eurozone sovereign debt crisis hit in 2010, there were sell offs in periphery bond markets, but stupendous gains in core safe havens, for a while neutralizing each other.

In the case of Europe, there were also banking losses (in 2008 and 2010).

For Europe the bigger adjustment by far was recession, increased budget deficits and national debts, and the need to unwind these by constraining the welfare state over many years to come.

This is a serious economic disturbance, most devastating in Club Med countries, but also in the richer ones as they need to adjust to changed circumstances.

So there’s loss of employment and welfare benefits over time and like in the Anglo-Saxon countries it is huge.

Also, the banking system has been weakened by large financial losses and will need nursing, rebuilding its capital buffers.

The general mood isn’t necessarily different from the Anglo-Saxon one, being shocked, anxious and defensive, inclined to reduce debt and incur less risk.

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Crisis devastation and adjustment has not been limited to Anglo-Saxon and European parts. Other regions have not altogether escaped fallout either.

There have been exceptions escaping entirely any crisis or fallout, such as Aussie and Brazil.

But China for instance incurred a large fall in exports early last year (-35%), undertook major fiscal stimulus, and directed its state-controlled banks to become yet more accommodating (directed at infrastructure and residential property).

The Chinese economy apparently also experienced wrenching economic dislocation 18 months ago, mention being made of 20 million jobs being lost and people returning to their rural home towns.

It is difficult to establish how much of this has already been unwound, as the Chinese economy changed direction, favouring domestic consumption and investment, with growth surging anew this past year.

Financially, certain overseas Chinese bond holdings hugely increased in value (especially US Treasuries and German bunds favoured globally as safe havens) while other investments may have suffered. Currency fluctuation (Dollar, Euro) will have had an impact, too.

Still, it wasn’t all negative.

With the global crises behind us, and rescue policies starting to be unwound, China has also changed direction once again, directing its banks to become less generous (and changing interest rates and credit standards accordingly), forcing especially the speculatively frothy residential property market to cool down and the stock market to become more uncertain.

Variations on these themes played out across the world, including South Africa, where asset markets and economic performance may have suffered, unemployment and fiscal burdens increased and monetary policies became more accommodative in order to create incentive for recovery.

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And so, if indeed the world was only devastated by two crises in short order, and there isn’t another one lurking in the wings (whether China-based or focused on central bank inflated balance sheets or any other unknown origin), the reality today and many years to come is one of repair mode if very unequally shared across the world.

The worst off are Anglo-Saxon and Club Med labour forces. Unemployment has hugely increased and will take up to a full decade being unwound.

Little fiscal support is likely to be forthcoming after this year as governments in these countries and in Europe generally reduce their budget deficits, in most cases by only 1% of GDP annually, but in the worst cases by 2% annually in order to regain fiscal stability post-2015.

Full responsibility to incentivise downtrodden economies will be very low interest rates, in extreme instances supported for a while longer by yet more bond buying.

Competitive currency devaluation will certainly be something few governments will be shy about, but as these things go the entire world can’t devalue. So some countries will succeed in devaluing, either because financial markets degrade them on account of economic underperformance or because policies are followed to encourage capital to flow out and weakens the currency.

Each country will have its own profile on this score and be affected accordingly, some encountering currency appreciation while others devalue, with this assisting in bringing about important economic adjustments.

But the thing to appreciate is that all of this is repair mode rather than crisis mode. And given the size of the many dislocations around the world, it will be a LONG repair job, in places easily taking up to a decade (if not longer, an unspoken thought in far too many minds).

Throughout all this the world remains in an awful hurry, as much the parts that came through this cleanly as the most devastated parts. For the future can’t wait.

And the overall global system ultimately didn’t not lose its bearings even if parts were thoroughly devastated.

Cees Bruggemans is Chief Economist of First National Bank. Register for his free e-mail articles on www.fnb.co.za/economics

Nobody has any doubt about leading national currencies. The Dollar, Yen, Sterling, Yuan, Rand will continue to exist for the time being.

But the Euro? If so, at what level? If not, what next?

Europe as a concept is incomplete. And that makes for various possibilities.

For South African exporters with a third of manufactured exports, much agricultural and mining exports still going there, this creates specific risk.

What exchange rate is one to assume? Here one needs as much to understand where Europe is heading, as where South Africa will find itself. This isn’t necessarily the same thing.

First Europe.

There is technical analysis. And there is a political one. Reality may be superimposed on both.

When the fiscal sustainability of countries becomes doubtful, financial markets at first reduce their willingness to fund sovereigns (pushing up the yield demanded, discounting growing risk) and ultimately refuse to fund (forcing debt default if nothing intervenes).

In the case of 2010, Greece went effectively into default, Portugal was to be next, and we can argue about Spain and Ireland.

Countries such as the UK were on the watchlist (remembering Willem Buiter’s crack two years ago of potentially facing a Reykjavik-on-the-Thames, making the comparison with bankrupt Icelandic banks pulling that country over the edge).

Governments of countries such as Portugal were close to going unnecessarily into default this year, because the markets were no longer prepared to give them time to fiscally retrench and turn around their finances, even if in principle they should be able to get out of their problems this way.

Europe’s governments intervened at the 11^th hour by launching a €750bn Eurozone lifeboat, in addition to the already announced €110bn package for Greece.

Thus Greece was from May 2010 no longer dependent on private funding, and such public support was from then also available to other qualifying Europeans.

Even so, to be successful the loan facility cannot become a subsidized rescue for countries in trouble, but instead should merely offer insurance against unwarranted speculative market attacks.

For this reason the offered loan facility needs teeth. If a country doesn’t fiscally retrench, reducing its budget deficits and arresting its debt spiral, the penalties need to be harsh.

Thus the real test still lies ahead. And Greece will be its first real testing ground.

There are many observers who don’t believe that Greece can stay the course with its fiscal retrenchment, fully meeting the imposed conditions. If Greek retrenchment fatigue were to surface, possibly within two years, even before the offered lifeline has been fully utilized, something else will come into focus.

It is quite clear at present that the richer Europeans are in no mood to bail out the Greeks (or anyone else) at all costs, for there is an alternative.

But because a drastic change will be costly for all, the richer countries will first try to see whether any real bite can still convince the struggling countries to yet make even bigger efforts to get finances under control.

The likes of Germany, Holland and others will by then make very clear to the likes of Greece that the loan facility isn’t a subsidy, only an insurance policy.

Greece will then have to ensure its own redemption by making all the necessary adjustments, meaning low budget deficit, high primary surplus, eventually falling debt levels, supply side reforms and resumption of growth.

If all that doesn’t work out (and not only with Greece), there may eventually be a parting of the ways after much argument on a five year or more time horizon (Europeans tending to take their time settling an argument).

If the weaker countries don’t voluntarily want to exit the Euro (they won’t, for the asymmetric costs facing them are very high), the richer countries may well decide at some point to step out together and create a new club of more naturally associated countries.

A Super Euro could then well result, leaving the poorer cousins with an Inferior Euro, or fragmenting back into national currencies.

The next five years are therefore not likely to be short of Greek drama or European risk.

Financial markets will want to discount likely outcomes, and given country strains over the period this may from time to time weigh on the Euro. Any successes should obviously buoy the Euro.

Only when (if) the rich club of Europeans gets reconstituted, with its own new currency, can that Super Euro expect to soar. On the other hand, the old Rump Euro would devalue heavily.

So the European Project in which France politically anchors Germany and keeps it contained, with the smaller countries all aspiring to be inside the tent in order to escape currency volatility and benefit from the low anchor risk and its low interest rates, may yet fragment along predictably fault lines.

But then it may not if they all hang together, if with considerable effort, the Euro surviving, again becoming successful and accepted as such.

This brings a yet bigger picture into focus.

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Dominique de Villepin, a previous French Prime Minister (and on occasion described as a modern Talleyrand), today heavily in Gaullist mode, puts it rather succinctly.

“We in Europe often don’t seem to understand this, but the times we live through are beginning to look like some of the most dramatic periods in our common history.

In Europe we are facing a historic challenge. After four or five centuries of Western dominance, one finds today Europe’s place in the global order being questioned.

It is exciting to pick up that glove, economically but also culturally and politically.

Culturally, it is a matter of whether we can organize international solidarity on a planet-wide scale. Whether we can create global organizational formats.

The United States only the other day claimed it cannot alone solve the world’s problems. That’s realistic.

We must discuss worldwide about the values that unite us. What do human rights mean in the new multi-polar world? What do freedom and justice mean?

Among ordinary Europeans there is a great restlessness because people cannot see what the future should look like. There has been a remarkable change. Everywhere in Europe but also in the US, people are uncertain and are asking questions about what comes next. There is a general feeling of powerlessness.

This in contrast to what you see when visiting Latin America, China, India, even the Middle East and Africa, where you encounter a formidable optimism.

There they sense that history is changing direction. The feeling that what yesterday was still impossible may now be coming within reach.

Nothing has been lost so far. We must start thinking about our future. Difficult, because it won’t stay the way it now is or was. The easy centuries lie behind us. The solutions are not obvious. We need to reinvent economics and politics.”

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These are overarching political sentiments, much more complex than the simple technical nuts and bolts of monetary (and fiscal) union.

Both at the technical level, but also at the highest political level, no different from the past 60 years, Europe must continue to look for structures that suit its complex personality best.

My sense is that the Eurozone won’t splinter and that the Euro won’t fragment into different currencies and groupings. But delivering that will require much sacrifice from the weaker countries and much demanding oversight from the richer ones.

Financial markets will ascribe a higher risk premium to the entire European project (the Euro) than before as well as individual countries (via their government bonds). With such a more realistic sense of structural shortcomings guiding markets, one would expect the Euro to underperform against better performing economies in the global periphery (emerging and commodity producing especially).

Alongside a United States also structurally struggling to get its house in order, the two largest currencies in the world may well be weighted down even once they start eventually ‘normalising’ their interest rate levels back to higher levels.

This spells Rand strength, at least firmness, rather than weakness, potentially for many years.

Secondly the Rand

Will South Africa continue with conservative macro policies, pursuing stability? Or will there be more policy adventure, regarding greater intervention in favour of a weaker Rand?

The former condition (continuing with the status quo) may reinforce the global tendencies, underwriting a yet stronger Rand than the 7:$ and 9.50:€ currently staring us in the face, at least for the time being.

In contrast, any political and/or policy detours may succeed in somehow undermining the Rand, the extent of which would be a function of the radicalism with which alternative policies are pursued and/or the financial markets eventually decide to punish us by withholding global capital as our risk profile deteriorates unacceptably.

These thoughts don’t yield nice clean Rand/Euro exchange numbers for the next ten years. Instead, they should install a healthy sense of risk, regarding upside (for now) and downside (whenever).

It will all depend on circumstances of which the European angle, despite its complexity, may be the least uncertain relative to any political or policy adventures we may still instigate ourselves.

Excellent cases can be made for common sense to prevail, as much in Europe as here, making for a least damaged Rand. But it isn’t the only potential future on call.

That makes it very, very difficult to be believably specific about the Rand/Euro these next ten years.

References

Rene Moerland, “Oud-Premier Dominique de Villepin – Europa is bezig zichzelf van de kaart te wissen”, NRC Handelsblad 7 Juni 2010

Justin Marozzi, “The man who invented history – travels with Herodotus”, John Murray Publishers 2008

Cees Bruggemans is Chief Economist of First National Bank. Register for his free e-mail articles on www.fnb.co.za/economics